What are Executive Functions?
In their book Developing Self-Regulating Learners, Butler, D. L., Perry, N. E., & Schnellert, L. define executive functions (EFs) as "an umbrella term used by many researchers and educators to describe the 'cognitive control functions' supported by the brain's prefrontal cortex. These are the processes we rely on to engage goal-directed thinking and behaviour" (pg.31, 2017). These executive functions that take place largely in the frontal cortex are processes that we use when we are faced with a challenging situation, much like what students go through on a daily basis in school. In a basic form, EFs can be broken down into 3 categories: Core Executive Function Processes, Complex Executive Function Processes and Control Processes. Each of these categories presents itself through the interactions that we experience daily:
(Taken from: Developing Self-Regulating Learners, Butler, D. L., Perry, N. E., & Schnellert, L., pg.32, 2017)
For the purpose of this resource and the sake of being more precise, we have broken down these 3 key processes into 8 categories that provide what we think is a more comprehensive way of handling the processes. The 8 categories are: Impulse Control, Emotional Control, Flexible Thinking, Working Memory, Self-Monitoring, Planning and Prioritizing, Higher Order Thinking, and Organization. Each of these categories play an integral role in developing self-regulation abilities and helping students in the navigation of their daily tasks and interactions.
(Taken from: Developing Self-Regulating Learners, Butler, D. L., Perry, N. E., & Schnellert, L., pg.32, 2017)
- Core Executive Function Processes is broken down into inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Inhibitory control is associated with the controlling of attention, resisting distractions, and inhibiting irrelevant actions. Working memory is associated with the holding of immediate knowledge and information and working with that (kind of like knowledge on demand). Cognitive Flexibility is associated with thinking flexibly, and adapting during learning and performance.
- Complex Executive Function Processes are broken down into functions that are responsible for high-level thinking and processing such as reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking.
- Control Processes are the functions processes that are responsible for the top-down control of action such as prioritizing, goal setting, planning, and self-monitoring.
For the purpose of this resource and the sake of being more precise, we have broken down these 3 key processes into 8 categories that provide what we think is a more comprehensive way of handling the processes. The 8 categories are: Impulse Control, Emotional Control, Flexible Thinking, Working Memory, Self-Monitoring, Planning and Prioritizing, Higher Order Thinking, and Organization. Each of these categories play an integral role in developing self-regulation abilities and helping students in the navigation of their daily tasks and interactions.
How are Executive Functions present in the classroom?
EFs are the processes that aid individuals in the navigation of their daily lives. The classroom is where self-regulation strategies are born, put into place, and experiment with as students try to find a strategy that is going to be the most effective for them. In the current state of education students are to manage these processes and perform to expectations on assigned tasks that will be assessed based on guidelines, all while processing the world around them. It is the responsibility of educators to ensure that and EF deficiency or exceptionality is determined and a strategy put in place to help the student as much as possible in their preparation for their life outside of the classroom.
Break down of the Executive Functions
The 3 processes discussed above have been broken down into these 8 categories. We have provided a definition of each of the categories that was used to help determine and sort the strategies.
Impulse/Inhibitory Control- This is the ability for an individual to control their attention, the ability to resist distractions and inhibit irrelevant reactions. This control appears as an individual controls their immediate response to a stimulus in the environment. In the classroom this appears in the form of a student resisting the urge to shout out, or the ability to resist an inappropriate action.
Emotional Control- This is the ability for an individual to their emotions in different situations. This type of control appears as the individual manages their response to emotional stimuli such as seeing something that normally makes them sad, or getting overly excited. Often individuals with weak emotional control have difficulties with criticism and dealing with transitions if something does go wrong.
Flexible Thinking- This portion of cognitive flexibility is correlated with the ability of an individual to shift their attention between tasks. Flexible thinking often requires an individual to be able to deal with change and be able to transition based on sudden change. In an educational context this will appear as students who have difficulty shifting between subjects, dealing with emergency situations (i.e. fire drills), and become frustrated if something does not go as planned on the first attempt. This process correlates with the ability to bounce back if something fails.
Working Memory- Working memory is the access to immediate memory that can be called upon in an instant. The process is associated with being able to work with multiple facets of this memory and call on it right away. This appears in education as students deal with different work variables such as time, teacher expectations, dealing with group members, and the actual task. An individual with a poor working memory often has difficulty remembering directions, or rules to a game despite repetition.
Higher Order Thinking- The processes of more difficult and higher-order thinking is associated with complex functions of daily interactions that become more apparent as an individual ages. These situations take form as critical thinking practices, problem solving ability, reasoning, and creativity while an individual navigates the more complex daily interactions. The higher order thinking practices will take place in the classroom as the students deal not only with more difficult tasks, but also within social contexts as they part-take in their social lives.
Self-Monitoring- Self-Monitoring seems rather synonymous with self-regulation, however the process of it requires specific attention to one's response rather than the processing of that response. Self-Monitoring acts as a check in for an individual as they pursue some goal-oriented action. This Self-Monitoring will appear in the educational context as a student checks in on their own progress and makes goals for their selves. This Self-Monitoring practice will also take shape as the student adheres to different expectations set by the environment around them as the student ensures they are not perceived as out of place.
Planning and Prioritizing- Planning and Prioritizing is often a process that aligns better with higher-order thinking as individuals acquire similar skills as they mature to manage this better. The planning side of this process focusses on the ability for an individual to set attainable goals for them selves, as well as ensuring that they take the right steps to ensure it gets done. The Prioritizing side of this process correlates with an individual's ability to sort the important tasks and things in their lives as they come up to ensure that their original goal is still met, this will also be evident when a student is dealing with a task that may have many steps, but does not know where to start. This process will appear in the classroom as a student projects their tasks and establishes a direction in which the assignments will be completed.
Organization- The organization process is as it sounds where an individual organizes the things (tasks, or objects) around them. Someone with poor organization skills often appears messy or 'un'organized as far as having things all over the place. This will appear in education as a student who has difficulty keeping track of their homework, whose desk is always a mess, or can't seem keep their train of thought when remembering things.
(Compiled from:
Developing Self-Regulating Learners, Butler, D. L., Perry, N. E., & Schnellert, L., pg.32, 2017
and
Morin, A. (2014). At a Glance: 8 Key Executive Functions. Retrieved March 09, 2017, from https://www.understood.org/en/learning-attention-issues/child-learning-disabilities/executive-functioning-issues/key-executive-functioning-skills-explained)
Impulse/Inhibitory Control- This is the ability for an individual to control their attention, the ability to resist distractions and inhibit irrelevant reactions. This control appears as an individual controls their immediate response to a stimulus in the environment. In the classroom this appears in the form of a student resisting the urge to shout out, or the ability to resist an inappropriate action.
Emotional Control- This is the ability for an individual to their emotions in different situations. This type of control appears as the individual manages their response to emotional stimuli such as seeing something that normally makes them sad, or getting overly excited. Often individuals with weak emotional control have difficulties with criticism and dealing with transitions if something does go wrong.
Flexible Thinking- This portion of cognitive flexibility is correlated with the ability of an individual to shift their attention between tasks. Flexible thinking often requires an individual to be able to deal with change and be able to transition based on sudden change. In an educational context this will appear as students who have difficulty shifting between subjects, dealing with emergency situations (i.e. fire drills), and become frustrated if something does not go as planned on the first attempt. This process correlates with the ability to bounce back if something fails.
Working Memory- Working memory is the access to immediate memory that can be called upon in an instant. The process is associated with being able to work with multiple facets of this memory and call on it right away. This appears in education as students deal with different work variables such as time, teacher expectations, dealing with group members, and the actual task. An individual with a poor working memory often has difficulty remembering directions, or rules to a game despite repetition.
Higher Order Thinking- The processes of more difficult and higher-order thinking is associated with complex functions of daily interactions that become more apparent as an individual ages. These situations take form as critical thinking practices, problem solving ability, reasoning, and creativity while an individual navigates the more complex daily interactions. The higher order thinking practices will take place in the classroom as the students deal not only with more difficult tasks, but also within social contexts as they part-take in their social lives.
Self-Monitoring- Self-Monitoring seems rather synonymous with self-regulation, however the process of it requires specific attention to one's response rather than the processing of that response. Self-Monitoring acts as a check in for an individual as they pursue some goal-oriented action. This Self-Monitoring will appear in the educational context as a student checks in on their own progress and makes goals for their selves. This Self-Monitoring practice will also take shape as the student adheres to different expectations set by the environment around them as the student ensures they are not perceived as out of place.
Planning and Prioritizing- Planning and Prioritizing is often a process that aligns better with higher-order thinking as individuals acquire similar skills as they mature to manage this better. The planning side of this process focusses on the ability for an individual to set attainable goals for them selves, as well as ensuring that they take the right steps to ensure it gets done. The Prioritizing side of this process correlates with an individual's ability to sort the important tasks and things in their lives as they come up to ensure that their original goal is still met, this will also be evident when a student is dealing with a task that may have many steps, but does not know where to start. This process will appear in the classroom as a student projects their tasks and establishes a direction in which the assignments will be completed.
Organization- The organization process is as it sounds where an individual organizes the things (tasks, or objects) around them. Someone with poor organization skills often appears messy or 'un'organized as far as having things all over the place. This will appear in education as a student who has difficulty keeping track of their homework, whose desk is always a mess, or can't seem keep their train of thought when remembering things.
(Compiled from:
Developing Self-Regulating Learners, Butler, D. L., Perry, N. E., & Schnellert, L., pg.32, 2017
and
Morin, A. (2014). At a Glance: 8 Key Executive Functions. Retrieved March 09, 2017, from https://www.understood.org/en/learning-attention-issues/child-learning-disabilities/executive-functioning-issues/key-executive-functioning-skills-explained)